In the fourth century before Christ, Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East, from Egypt to India, constructing a vast empire that enriched Greece economically and spread Greek culture throughout. The intermix of Greek (Hellenic) civilization and cultures of the Near East, including Egyptian, Judaic and Persian, continued under Alexander the Great’s (d. 323 B.C.) successors, the Seleucids and Ptolemies, constituting the Hellenistic Age, which lasted until the Roman conquests of the first century B.C. Around 200 B.C., Seleucid ruler, Antiochus III, wrested control of Yehud (Judah) from the Ptolemies and at this time, Essene movement began.
Essenes were a sect of ancient Judaism, an association of like-minded individuals, priests and laity, responding to the influx of Greek culture in their homeland. Greek religion (polytheism), philosophy, mores, institutions (e.g., gymnasia), conflicted with Torah in many ways. Temple, priesthood, kashrut (dietary law), circumcision, calendar, aspects of daily cleanliness or purity were subject to corruption from foreign influence. Essenes were a conservative-reform group in Second Temple Judaism seeking to negate the advances of Hellenistic ideas and practice by reforming religion conservatively, in accord with past writings (i.e., Miqra‘ or TaNaK). Also, Essenes were a prophetic community, conducting themselves as the covenant remnant of Israel in fulfillment of prophecies of renewal and restoration. As the years went by, Essenes became more organized, though quietly, out of touch (i.e., intentionally secret, separate, distinct) with mainstream leaders of Judaism, refining their interpretation of Scripture, adjusting their unique teachings, and gathering adherents through a careful novitiate. Essene movement ended in the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in 66 – 70 A.D.
The Term ‘Essene’
The word Essene(s) is found in three ancient writers, Philo, Josephus, Pliny the Elder, who should be consulted to understand its meaning.
Pliny the Elder (c. 78 A.D.):
On the west side of the Dead Sea, but out of range of the noxious exhalations of the
coast, is the solitary tribe of the Essenes which is remarkable beyond all the other tribes
of the whole world as it has no women and has renounced all sexual desire, has no
money, and has only palm trees for company. Day by day the throng of refugees is
recruited to an equal number by numerous accessions of persons tired of life and driven
there by the waves of fortune to adopt their manners. Thus, through thousands of ages
(incredible to relate) a race in which no one is born lives on forever- so prolific for their
advantage is other men’s weariness of life! (Nat. Hist. V.15)
Josephus, Jewish historian of first century A.D., has extensive description of Essenes in his work, The Jewish War (II.8). Josephus said Essenes are a “third philosophical form” in Judaism, along with Pharisees and Sadducees, maintain ascetic discipline (‘shunning pleasure, exercising self-control’), practice purity in daily rite of prayers, meals, work, and allow marriage, but “protect themselves from the wanton ways of women” (8.2.121). Also, Essenes are “trained in holy books” and “sayings of prophets” (8.12.159). Much else may be found on Essenes in Josephus.
Jewish philosopher, Philo of Alexandria (d. c. 50 A.D.), wrote admiringly of Essenes in two works, That Every Good Man is Free and Hypothetica. That Every Good Man is Free contains a philological remark on “Essaioi,” (Philo’s version of ‘Essenes’):
Moreover, Palestine and Syria are not barren of exemplary wisdom and virtue. In
these countries lives no small portion of that most populous nation of the Jews. There is a
portion of those people called Essenes, in number something more than four thousand in
my opinion, who derive their name from their piety, though not according to an accurate
form of the Greek language, because they are above all especially devoted to the
service of God, not sacrificing living animals, but studying rather to preserve their own
minds in a state of holiness and purity. (XII.75)
Philo associates “Essenes” with the Greek noun for ‘holiness’ (ὁσιότηϛ), but says it’s not accurate Greek usage. The defective Greek indicates ‘Essene’ originated in another language, namely, Aramaic or Hebrew. Philo’s statement that ‘Essenes’ means ‘holy’ or ‘pious ones’ is one possibility among many in the Semitic lexicon. ‘Essene’ cannot be surely traced without historical documentation.
Dead Sea Scrolls
First discovered in 1947 in caves west of Dead Sea, the Scrolls represent a sectarian library of biblical and non-biblical writings on parchment and papyrus, some whole, many in fragments, of great value for understanding Judaism prior to 70 A.D. Except for Esther, copies of all books of Hebrew Bible have been found, which is important for textual criticism. Non-biblical scrolls include apocrypha, such as Sirach and Tobit, and pseudepigrapha, like Enoch, Jubilees. Also found were many partisan writings of many genres; rules, hymns, Bible interpretation, apocalyptic, wisdom, calendars, liturgy, prayers. The partisan writings express ideas and practices relating to an organized group in Judaism of the time and though the term ‘Essene’ is not found, coincidences between them and Josephus, Philo and Pliny on Essenes leads to working hypothesis that Dead Sea/Qumran scrolls are the literary production of Essene party.
(Essenes did a good job of keeping themselves and their writings separate and secret, but they were known, sub-rosa and did gain new members. On account of their prolific writing, it seems probable that some scribes of New Testament period were Essenes.)
Essene Writings (selections)
Community Rule 1QS (cave 1, Qumran, Heb. serekh)
[Also called ‘Manual of Discipline,’ similar to Christian monastic orders, e.g., Rule of St. Benedict, dates to c. 100 B.C., many recensions found in other caves]
I The Master shall teach the saints to live according to the Book of the Community Rule, that they may seek God with a whole heart and soul, and do what is good and right before Him as He commanded by the hand of Moses and all His servants the Prophets; that they may love all that He has chosen and hate all that He has rejected; that they may abstain from all evil and hold fast to all good; that they may practice truth, righteousness, and justice upon earth and no longer stubbornly follow a sinful heart and lustful eyes, committing all manner of evil. He shall admit into the Covenant of Grace all those who have freely devoted themselves to the observance of God’s precepts, that they may be joined to the counsel of God and may live perfectly before Him in accordance with all that has been revealed concerning their appointed times, and that they may love all the sons of light, each according to his lot in God’s design, and hate all the sons of darkness, each according to his guilt in God’s vengeance.
All those who freely devote themselves to His truth shall bring all their knowledge, powers and possessions into the Community of God …
On entering the Covenant, the Priests and Levites shall bless the God of salvation and all His faithfulness, and all those entering the Covenant shall say after them, ‘Amen, Amen!’ …
II … Thus shall they do, year by year, for as long as the dominion of Belial endures. …
III … He has created man to govern the world, and has appointed for him two spirits in which to walk until the time of His visitation: the spirits of truth and injustice. …
V … They shall separate from the congregation of the men of injustice and shall unite, with respect to the Law and possessions, under the authority of the sons of Zadok, the priests who keep the Covenant, and of the multitude of the men of the Community who hold fast to the Covenant. …
VI … If any man has uttered the [most] Venerable Name VII even though frivolously, or as a result of shock or for any other reason whatever, while reading the Book or blessing, he shall be dismissed and shall return to the Council of the Community no more. …
… Whoever has deliberately lied shall do penance for six months. …
… Whoever has spoken foolishly: three months. …
…Whoever has spat in an Assembly of the Congregation shall do penance for thirty days. …
IX … These are the precepts in which the Master shall walk …
… He shall conceal the teaching of the Law from men of injustice, but shall impart true knowledge and righteous judgment to those who have chosen the Way. …
… This is the time for the preparation of the way into the wilderness …
… Everlasting hatred in a spirit of secrecy for the men of perdition! …
X … I will sing with knowledge and all my music shall be for the glory of God. …
…Before I move my hands and feet I will bless His Name.
I will praise Him before I go out or enter, or sit or rise, and whilst I lie on the couch of my bed.
A Lamentation 4Q501 (cave 4, Qumran, c. 50 B.C.)
Give not our inheritance to strangers, nor our (hard-earned) property to foreigners.
Remember that we are [the forsaken] of Thy People and the forsaken of Thine inheritance.
Remember the desolate children of Thy covenant …
Account of David’s Poems 11Q5 (cave 11, Qumran, c. 30 A.D.)
XXVII David son of Jesse was wise and brilliant like the light of the sun; (he was) a scribe, intelligent and perfect in all his ways before God and men. YHWH gave him an intelligent and brilliant spirit, and he wrote 3600 psalms and 364 songs to sing before the altar for the daily perpetual sacrifice, for all the days of the year; and 52 songs for the Sabbath offerings; and 30 songs for the new moons, for Feast-days and for the Day of Atonement. …
… All these he uttered through prophecy which was given him from before the Most High.
Messianic Apocalypse 4Q521 (cave 4, Qumran, c. 95 B.C.; cf. Ps. 146; Isa. 61)
Fragment 2
II … [the hea]vens and the earth will listen to His Messiah, and none therein will stray from the commandments of the holy ones. Seekers of the Lord, strengthen yourselves in His service! All you hopeful in (your) heart, will you not find the Lord in this? For the Lord will consider the pious (hasidim) and call the righteous by name. Over the poor His spirit will hover and will renew the faithful with His power. And He will glorify the pious on the throne of the eternal Kingdom. He who liberates the captives, restores sight to the blind, straightens the b[ent]. … And the Lord will accomplish glorious things which have never been … For He will heal the wounded, and revive the dead and bring good news to the poor. He will lead the uprooted …
Commentary on Habakkuk 1QpHab (cave 1, Qumran, pesher, c. 125 B.C.)
I … [For the wicked encompasses] the righteous (Hab. 1:4c)
[Behold the nations and see, marvel and be astonished; for I accomplish a deed in your days, but you will not believe it when] II told (Hab. 1:5)
[Interpreted, this concerns] those who were unfaithful together with the Liar, in that they [did] not [listen to the word received by] the Teacher of Righteousness from the mouth of God. And it concerns the unfaithful of the New [Covenant] in that they have not believed in the Covenant of God [and have profaned] His holy Name. And likewise, this saying is to be interpreted [as concerning those who] will be unfaithful at the end of days. They, the men of violence and the breakers of the Covenant, will not believe when they hear all that [is to happen to] the final generation from the Priest [in whose heart] God set [understanding] that he might interpret all the words of His servants the prophets, through whom He foretold all that would happen to His people and [His land].
Heavenly Prince Melchizedek 11Q13 (cave 11, Qumran, c. 50 B.C.; cf. Heb. ch. 7)
… And concerning that which He said, In [this] year of Jubilee [each of you shall return to his property (Lev. 25:13), and likewise, And this is the manner of release:] every creditor shall release that which he has lent [to his neighbor. He shall not exact it of his neighbor and his brother], for God’s release [has been proclaimed] (Deut. 15:2). [And it will be proclaimed at] the end of days concerning the captives as [He said, To proclaim liberty to the captives (Isa. 61:1). Its interpretation is that He] will assign them to the Sons of Heaven and to the inheritance of Melchizedek; f[or He will cast] their [lot] amid the po[rtions of Melchize]dek, who will return from there and will proclaim to them liberty, forgiving them [the wrong-doings] of all their iniquities.
Some Precepts of the Law Miqsat Ma’ase Ha-Torah/MMT 4Q394-399 (cave 4, Qumran, c. 150 B.C.; cf. Gal. 2:16; 3:5; Rom. 3:20)
I [On the sixteenth of it (of the second month): sabbath]
On the twenty-third of it: sabbath
[On] the thir[tie]th [of it: sabbath
On the seventh of the third month: sabbath
On the fourteenth of it: sabbath
On the fifteenth of it: Feast of Weeks
On the twenty-] II [f]irs[t] of it: sabbath …
These are some of our teachings [] which are [] the works which w[e think [] and a]ll of them concern [] and the purity of … [And concerning the offering of the wh]eat of the [Gentiles which they …] and they touch it … and de[ile it … One should not accept anything] from the wheat [of the Gen]tiles [and none of it is] to enter the Sanctuary. …
… For the sons [of Aaron are to be] …
And furthermore concerning the skins of the cattle [and the sheep … from] their [skin]s vessel[s … [they are] not to bring] them to the Sanctuary …
And furthermore concerning the skin[s and bones of unclean animals, they shall not make from their bones] and from their s[k]i[ns] handles of v[essels and] …
And furthermore concerning the skin of the carcass of a clean [animal], he who carries their carcass shall not touch the [sacred] purity.
…And furthermore concerning the pouring [of liquids], we say that it contains no purity.
… And [dogs] are not to be brought to the sacred camp for they may eat some of the bones from the Sanctua[ry] to which meat is still attached. For Jerusalem is [the sacred camp] and is the place which He has chosen from all the tribes of Israel, for Jerusalem is the head of the camps of Israel.
And furthermore con[cerning the pl]anting of fruit trees planted in the land of Israel, they are like [firstfruits] destined for the [priests]. [And the tithe] of the cattle and sheep is for the priests.
And furthermore concerning the lepers, we s[ay that they shall not c]ome (into contact) with the sacred pure food for [they shall be] separated …
… [And furthermore] it is written [in the Book of Moses that] You shall not bring an abominable thing in[to your house (cf. Deut. 7:26) for] an abominable thing is detestable.
[And you know that] we have separated from the mass of the peop[le] … and from mingling with them in these matters and from being in contact with them in these (matters). And you k[now that no] treachery or lie or evil is found in our hands …
And furthermore we [have written] to you that you should understand [the Book of Moses] and the Book[s of the Pr]ophets and Da[vid and all the events] of every age. …
And furthermore it is written that [you will depart] from the w[a]y and that evil will befall you (cf. Deut. 31:29). …
… Remember the kings of Israel and understand their works that each of them who feared [the To]rah was saved from troubles, and to those who were seekers of the Law, their iniquities were [par]doned. Remember David that he was a man of piety, and that he was also saved from many troubles and pardoned.
We have also written to you concerning some of the precepts of the Law (miqsat ma’se ha-Torah), which we think are beneficial to you and your people. For [we have noticed] that prudence and knowledge of the Law are with you.
Understand all these (matters) and ask Him to straighten your counsel and put you far away from thoughts of evil and the counsel of Belial. Consequently, you will rejoice at the end of time when you discover that some of our sayings are true. And it will be reckoned to you as righteousness when you perform what is right and good before Him, for your own good and for that of Israel.
Bibliography
Source
Geza Vermes, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English (NY: Penguin, 1997)
Further Reading
Philip R. Davies, Qumran (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983)
Philip R. Davies, George J. Brooke, Phillip R. Callaway, The Complete World of the Dead Sea Scrolls (NY: Thames & Hudson, 2002)
James VanderKam & Peter Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls (NY: HarperCollins, 2002)
Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002)
Older Books
A. Powell Davies, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls (NY: Mentor, 1956)
R.K. Harrison, The Dead Sea Scrolls: An Introduction (NY: Harper, 1961)
John Allegro, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reappraisal (NY: Penguin, 1977)
Theodor H. Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures (Garden City: Anchor, 1976)
Edmund Wilson, Israel and The Dead Sea Scrolls (NY: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982)